Combinations of modalities for the treatment of diabetes

ABSTRACT

A method of treating, preventing, or delaying the progression of Type 1 diabetes mellitus by administering an effective amount of a fusion protein composition comprising a T-cell co-stimulation antagonist and a portion of an immunoglobulin molecule and an effective amount of a Type 1 diabetes autoantigen. The method includes, for example, administering a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) molecule and a Type 1 diabetes autoantigen. Pharmaceutical compositions are also provided herewith.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/055,932, filed Aug. 6, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/253,432, filed Apr. 15, 2014; which is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/534,571 filed Jun.27, 2012, and granted as U.S. Pat. No. 8,735,359, each of which areherein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has beensubmitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Feb. 6, 2019, isnamed D105478 1020US C3 SL and is 28,412 bytes in size.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of autoimmunedisease and specifically to the treatment, prevention, or delayedprogression of Type 1 diabetes mellitus using a combination of a CTLA4fusion protein and a Type 1 diabetes autoantigen.

BACKGROUND

The most common form of Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is animmune-mediated disease where insulin-secreting β-cells are destroyed byan autoimmune response. There are a number of genetic and environmentalfactors associated with the onset of the disease, which involves theprogressive inflammatory infiltration of pancreatic islets containingimmunocytes targeted specifically to insulin-secreting β-cells. Thispathology develops over an indeterminate period of time (months toyears). While the discovery of insulin allowed for the treatment ofT1DM, there is currently no cure. The most common form of Type 1diabetes mellitus is immune-mediated, in which insulin-producing 13cells are destroyed. Yet, at the time of diagnosis, most patients stillhave appreciable amounts of insulin production. Preservation of residualβ-cell function is highly desirable because it can reduce short-term andlong-term complications of the disease.

Several clinical trials have been undertaken in an attempt to arrestautoimmunity in Type 1 diabetes with immunomodulatory agents orantigen-based treatments. Most notably, trials of anti-CD3, anti-CD20,and a GAD-65 antigen vaccine have shown some efficacy in preservation ofβ-cell function as evidenced by stimulated C-peptide secretion. T cellsplay a central part in autoimmunity associated with Type 1 diabetes.

Reintroduction of autoantigen, such as insulin B-chain, in incompleteFreund's adjuvant (IFA), has also been contemplated for the treatment ordelayed progression of Type 1 diabetes. This has been studied in animalmodels of diabetes (NOD mice) (Muir et al. (1995) J Clin Invest95:628-634; Orban et al. (1999) Diabetes 48 Supp.1:A216-A217; Ramiya etal. (1996) J Autoimmun 9:349-356); U.S. Pat Pub. 2006/0183670 and U.S.Pat. Pub. 2009/0142308 and in humans. Orban et al., J Autoimmun. (2010June); 34(4):408-15.

However, there is need for additional new therapies for Type 1 diabetesmellitus that are able to halt or slow autoimmune β-cell destruction andthus prevent development of Type 1 diabetes, or at least prolong onsetof the disease for as long a period of time as possible.

SUMMARY

In accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention relateto methods of treating diabetes mellitus in a subject comprising:administering an effective amount of a fusion protein compositioncomprising a T-cell co-stimulation antagonist such as extracellulardomain of CTLA4, an effective fragment of the extracellular domain orimmunologically active variant of the extracellular domain and a portionof an immunoglobulin molecule and an effective amount of a Type 1diabetes autoantigen such as preproinsulin, GAD 65, ICA512/IA-2, HSP60,carboxypeptidase H, peripherin, and ganglioside or an immunologicallyactive fragment or variant thereof to the subject. In some embodiments,the preproinsulin fragment is insulin B-chain or an immunologicallyactive fragment or variant thereof such as amino acids 33-47 of SEQ IDNO:1 (i.e., B-chain 29-23)

In some embodiments, the subject has Type 1 diabetes mellitus withresidual beta-cell function. In some embodiments, the T-cellco-stimulation antagonist binds a B7 (CD80/86) antigen expressed on Bcells and/or on antigen presenting cells (APCs). In yet otherembodiments, the B7 antigen is expressed on B cells and on APCs.

In some embodiments, the method is effective for preventing the onset ofdiabetes. In other embodiments, the method is effective for delaying theonset of diabetes by at least, for example, 3 months, 6, months, 9months, 1 year, 1.5 years, 2 years, 3 years, or more. In someembodiments, the method further comprises determining levels ofC-peptide in blood samples taken from the subject over time as anindicator of effectiveness of the treatment.

In yet other embodiments of the present invention, there is provided apharmaceutical composition comprising: (a) a cytotoxicT-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) fusion protein, (b) anautoantigen selected from the group consisting of: preproinsulin, GAD65, ICA512/IA-2, HSP60, carboxypeptidase H, peripherin, and gangliosideor an immunologically active fragment or variant thereof, and (c) apharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is provided in anoil-based carrier such as IFA or Montanide ISA. In some embodiments, thepharmaceutical composition comprises about 250 mg to about 2000 mg ofthe fusion protein and about 0.5 to about 10 mg of the Type 1 diabetesautoantigen.

These and other features of the embodiments as will be apparent are setforth and described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

A detailed description of various embodiments is provided herein belowwith reference, by way of example, to the following drawings. Theskilled person in the art will understand that the drawings, describedbelow, are for illustration purposes only. The drawings are not intendedto limit the scope of the applicant's teachings in any way.

FIG. 1 is the population mean of stimulated C-peptide 2-h AUC mean overtime for each treatment group. The estimates are from the ANCOVA modeladjusting for age, sex, baseline value of C-peptide, and treatmentassignment. Y-axis is on a log(y+1) scale. Error bars show 95% CIs.AUC=area under the curve.

FIG. 2 is the predicted population mean of stimulated C-peptide 2-h AUCmean over time for each treatment group. Estimates are from the analysisof mixed-effects model adjusting for age, sex, baseline value ofC-peptide, and treatment assignment, and including a fixed effect fortime as a linear line on the log(y+1) scale. AUC=area under the curve.

FIG. 3 is the proportion of participants with 2-h peak C-peptideremaining at or above 0⋅2 nmol/L over time for each treatment group.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are the population mean of (A) HbA1c and (B) insulin useover time for each treatment group. Estimates are from the ANCOVA modeladjusting for age, sex, baseline value of HbA1c, and treatmentassignment. Insulin use is per kg of bodyweight, at 3-month intervals.Error bars show 95% CIs. HbA1c is glycated haemoglobin A1c.

FIG. 5 is the ratio (abatacept to placebo) of treatment effect on 2-yearstimulated C-peptide AUC mean within categories of prespecified baselinefactors. Estimates are from the ANCOVA modeling log of C-peptideadjusting for age, sex, baseline value of C-peptide, the indicatedcategorized factor, treatment assignment, and treatment interactionterms. The homogeneity test of treatment effect was significant for DR3allele status (p=0⋅025) and race (p=0⋅0003). AUC=area under the curve.HbA1c=glycated haemoglobin A1c.

It will be understood that the drawings are exemplary only and that allreference to the drawings is made for the purpose of illustration only,and is not intended to limit the scope of the embodiments describedherein below in any way.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

It has been found that a combination of a CTLA4 molecule and insulin-Bchain in IFA can be used for the treatment, prevention, or delayedprogression of Type 1 diabetes mellitus in a subject.

Preservation of residual β-cell function (as measured by peak C-peptide≥0⋅2 nmol/L) is highly desirable because it can reduce short-term andlong-term complications of the disease. Several clinical trials havebeen undertaken in an attempt to arrest autoimmunity in Type 1 diabeteswith immunomodulatory agents or antigen-based treatments. Most notably,trials of anti-CD3, anti-CD20, and a GAD-65 antigen vaccine have shownsome efficacy in preservation of β-cell function as evidenced bystimulated C-peptide secretion. C-peptide is a protein that is producedin the body along with insulin. In a healthy pancreas, preproinsulin issecreted with an A-chain, C-peptide, a B-chain, and a signal sequence.The signal sequence is cut off, leaving proinsulin. Then the C-peptideis cut out, leaving the A-chain and B-chain to form insulin. SinceC-peptide and insulin are present in equimolar amounts, it is a highlyreliable marker for insulin production and the health of pancreatic 13cells.

T cells play a central part in autoimmunity associated with Type 1diabetes. To become fully activated and autoaggressive, T cells arebelieved to need at least two crucial signals. (Marelli-Berg F M,Okkenhaug K, Mirenda V. A Trends Immunol 2007; 28: 267-73.) The firstsignal is an interaction between an antigen in the groove of the MHCmolecule on antigen-presenting cells and the T-cell receptor (TCR). Themost important second signal is the interaction between CD80 and CD86 onthe antigen presenting cells (APCs) and CD28 on the T cells. Thiscostimulatory second signal is needed for full activation of cells, andwithout it T cells do not become functional. Therefore, co-stimulationblockade has been proposed as a therapeutic modality for autoimmunityand transplantation. (Bluestone J A, St Clair E W, Turka L A. Immunity2006; 24: 233-38.)

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4), which is also knownas CD152, is a protein involved in the regulation of the immune system.Naturally occurring CTLA4 is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,434,131,5,844,095, and 5,851,795. Natural CTLA4 proteins are encoded by theCTLA4 gene. CTLA4 is a cell surface protein, having an N-terminalextracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, and a C-terminalcytoplasmic domain. The extracellular domain binds to and/or interfereswith target antigens, such as CD80 and CD86, serves as nature naturalbreak of T cell stimulation. In some embodiments, the extracellulardomain of the CTLA4 molecule begins with methionine at position +1 andends at aspartic acid at position +124; in other embodiments, theextracellular domain begins with alanine at position −1 and ends ataspartic acid at position +124.

A CTLA4 molecule is a molecule comprising a cytotoxicT-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) extracellular domain. In someembodiments, the extracellular domain of CTLA4 comprises a portion ofthe CTLA4 protein that recognizes and binds to at least one B7 (CD80/86)antigen such as a B7 antigen expressed on B cells and on antigenpresenting cells (APCs). The B-cells and APCs may be activated. Theextracellular domain may also include fragments or derivatives of CTLA4that bind a B7 antigen. The CTLA4 extracellular domain can alsorecognize and bind CD80 and/or CD86. The extracellular domain may alsoinclude fragments or derivatives of CTLA4 that bind a binds CD80 and/orCD86.

The CTLA4 molecule may be a fusion protein, where a fusion protein isdefined as one or more amino acid sequences joined together usingmethods well known in the art. The joined amino acid sequences therebyform one fusion protein. In some embodiments, the CTLA4 moleculecontains at least a portion of an immunoglobulin, such as the Fc portionof an immunoglobulin. In some embodiments, the CTLA4 molecule is anisolated and purified CTLA4 molecule.

In some embodiments, the CTLA4 molecule is a protein containing at leasta portion of an immunoglobulin, such as the Fc portion of animmunoglobulin. In some embodiments, the CTLA4 molecule is an isolatedand purified CTLA4 molecule.

In some preferred embodiments, the CTLA4 molecule is abatacept.Abatacept is a soluble fusion protein that consists of the extracellulardomain of human CTLA-4 linked to the modified Fc (hinge, CH2, and CH3domains) portion of human immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1). Abatacept isproduced by recombinant DNA technology in a mammalian cell expressionsystem. The apparent molecular weight of abatacept is 92 kilodaltons.

Abatacept was developed for use in adult rheumatoid arthritis andjuvenile idiopathic arthritis and is indicated for reducing signs andsymptoms, inducing major clinical response, inhibiting the progressionof structural damage, and improving physical function in adult patientswith moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis.

Abatacept was developed by Bristol-Myers Squibb and is disclosed, forexample, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,851,795, 7,455,835, and U.S. Pat. Pub.20011/311529. Abatacept, under the trade name ORENCIA, may be used asmonotherapy or concomitantly with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs(DMARDs) other than tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists. Abataceptis also indicated for reducing signs and symptoms in pediatric patients6 years of age and older with moderately to severely activepolyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Abatacept may be used asmonotherapy or concomitantly with methotrexate (MTX). Since abatacept isa selective costimulation modulator and inhibits the costimulation of Tcells, it should not be administered concomitantly with TNF antagonists.

Abatacept selectively binds to CD80 and CD86, thereby blocking theinteraction with CD28 and interfering with T-cell activation. Itinhibits naive T-cell activation, thus having the potential toselectively inhibit T-cell response to specific antigens instead ofbroad immunosuppression. Effector-memory T-cell responses are lessdependent on CD28 co-stimulation and, presumably, are less inhibited byco-stimulation blockade. (Lo D J, Weaver T A, Stempora L, et al. Am JTransplant 2011; 11: 22-33.)

Studies in both animals and human beings have shown that interruption ofthe co-stimulatory second signal beneficially affects autoimmunity.Co-stimulation blockade with abatacept has been shown to have clinicaleffectiveness in psoriasis (Abrams J R, Lebwohl M G, Guzzo C A, et al. JClin Invest 1999; 103: 1243-52) and psoriatic arthritis (Mease P,Genovese M C, Gladstein G, et al. Arthritis Rheum 2011; 63: 939-48) andis approved for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, Genant H K, Peterfy CG, Westhovens R, et al. Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67: 1084-89) includingjuvenile rheumatoid arthritis. (Ruperto N, Lovell D J, Quartier P, et alLancet 2008; 372: 383-91.) Additionally, co-stimulation blockade hasbeen effective in control of allograft rejection. (Vincenti F, Larsen C,Durrbach A. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 770-81.) Moreover, Lenschow andcoworkers (Lenschow D J, Ho S C, Sattar H, et al. J Exp Med 1995; 181:1145-55) showed that costimulatory blockade with both an anti B7-2monoclonal antibody and a CTLA4-immunoglobulin fusion protein preventeddiabetes in the NOD mice model when administered prior to 10 weeks ofage.

It has now been shown that co-stimulation modulation with T-cellco-stimulatory antagonists such as CTLA-4 compositions and in particularabatacept, halts or slows autoimmune destruction leading to preservationof C-peptide secretion in recently diagnosed patients with Type 1diabetes by blocking the generation of autoaggressive T cells (Orban etal., Lancet 2011; 378 (9789): 412-9.)

There are many autoantigens considered to be important in human Type 1diabetes mellitus. Several data suggest that insulin is a major antigenplaying roles in the pathogenesis of the disease (Muir et al. (1993)Diabetes Metab. Rev 9:279-287). Insulin, a β-cell specific major proteinis moderately immunogenic when used alone, and has been shown in a pilothuman trial to have the effect of delaying the development of diabetesmellitus (Keller et al. (1993) Lancet 341:927-928). However, it must beinjected daily over long periods of time to induce the desired effect.When insulin is used in humans, there is always a major concern abouthypoglycemia and its sequels.

Immunogenic fragments or variants of insulin or preproinsulin lackinghypoglycemic effect are a safe choice for human use. For example,insulin B-chain (or immunogenic fragments and variants thereof withoutmetabolic effect) can be used as an immune modulator to prevent or delayfurther loss of functional, residual β-cell mass, after the clinicalonset of Type 1 diabetes in humans, without hypoglycemic effect. Thereintroduction of autoantigen, e.g., insulin B-chain, in human subjectscan act to change to autoimmune process triggering a protective immuneresponse. The Th1/Th2 balance can change in favor of a protective Th2type cell response and generation of regulatory immune cells, Tregs.

Autoantibodies against insulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) andother islet cell autoantigens, e.g., ICA 512/IA-2 protein tyrosinephosphatase, ICA12, ICA69, are frequently found in newly diagnoseddiabetic patients. Thus, Type 1 diabetes autoantigens useful in themethods of the invention include, e.g., preproinsulin or animmunologically active fragment thereof (e.g., preproinsulin fragment,insulin B-chain, A chain, C peptide or an immunologically activefragment thereof), and other islet cell autoantigens (ICA), e.g., GAD65,islet tyrosine phosphatase ICA512/IA-2, ICA12, ICA69 or immunologicallyactive fragments thereof. Other Type 1 diabetes autoantigens includeHSP60, carboxypeptidase H, peripherin, gangliosides (e.g., GM1-2, GM3)or immunologically active fragments thereof. Any of the Type 1 diabetesautoantigens described herein, or immunologically active fragments,analogs or derivatives thereof, are useful in the methods andcompositions of the invention.

The insulin mRNA is translated as a 110 amino acid single chainprecursor called preproinsulin, and removal of its signal peptide duringinsertion into the endoplasmic reticulum generates proinsulin.Proinsulin consists of three domains: an amino-terminal B-chain, acarboxy-terminal A chain and a connecting peptide in the middle known asthe C peptide. Within the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin is exposedto several specific endopeptidases which excise the C peptide, therebygenerating the mature form of insulin which consists of the A andB-chain. Insulin and free C peptide are packaged in the Golgi intosecretory granules which accumulate in the cytoplasm. The preproinsulinpeptide sequence is found in SEQ ID NO: 1.

Insulin A chain includes amino acids 90-110 of SEQ ID NO: 1. B-chainincludes amino acids 25-54 of SEQ ID NO: 1. The connecting sequence(amino acids 55-89 of SEQ ID NO: 1) includes a pair of basic amino acidsat either end. Proteolytic cleavage of proinsulin at these dibasicsequences liberates the insulin molecule and free C peptide, whichincludes amino acids 57-87 of SEQ ID NO:1. The human preproinsulin or animmunologically active fragment thereof, e.g., B-chain or an immunogenicfragment thereof, e.g., amino acids 33-47 of SEQ ID NO:1 (correspondingto residues 9-23 of the B-chain) or signal peptide sequence or othersequences of the preproinsulin, are useful as autoantigens in themethods and compositions described herein.

Gad65 is a primary β-cell antigen involved in the autoimmune responseleading to insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (Christgau et al. (1991)J Biol. Chem. 266(31):21257-64). The presence of autoantibodies to GAD65is used as a method of diagnosis of Type 1 diabetes. Gad65 is the 585amino acid protein of SEQ ID NO:2. Changes in autoantibody titers and inGAD65AB isotypes reflecting the effect of administration can be used tocharacterize the regression in autoimmune process in diabetic orprediabetic patients. In addition, there will be changes in stimulatedcytokine profile (in favor of Th2-cells) correlating with the effect ofthe autoantigen administration, which later may be used as humoralmarker for regression of autoimmunity in Type 1 diabetes mellitus.

IA-2/ICA512, a member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase family, isanother major autoantigen in Type 1 diabetes (Lan et al. DNA Cell Biol13:505-514, 1994). 70% of diabetic patients have autoantibodies to IA-2,which appear years before the development of clinical disease. The IA-2molecule (SEQ ID NO:3, below) is 979 amino acids in length and consistsof an intracellular, transmembrane, and extracellular domain (Rabin etal. (1994) J. Immunol. 152 (6), 3183-3188). Autoantibodies are typicallydirected to the intracellular domain, e.g., amino acids 600-979 of SEQID NO:3 and fragments thereof (Zhang et al. (1997) Diabetes 46:40-43;Xie et al. (1997) J Immunol 159:3662-3667). The amino acid sequence ofIA-2 is shown in SEQ ID NO: 3.

ICA 12 (Kasimiotis et al. (2000) Diabetes 49(4):555-61; Gen bankAccession No. AAD16237; SEQ ID NO:4) is one of a number of islet cellautoantigens associated with diabetes. The sequence of ICA12 is providedas SEQ ID NO: 4.

ICA69 is another autoantigen associated with Type 1 diabetes(Pietropaolo et al. J Clin Invest 1993; 92:359-371). The amino acidsequence of ICA69 is provided as SEQ ID NO: 5.

Glima 38 is a 38 kDa islet cell membrane autoantigen which isspecifically immunoprecipitated with sera from a subset of prediabeticindividuals and newly diagnosed Type 1 diabetic patients. Glima 38 is anamphiphilic membrane glycoprotein, specifically expressed in islet andneuronal cell lines, and thus shares the neuroendocrine expressionpatterns of GAD65 and IA2 (Aanstoot et al. J Clin Invest. Jun. 15, 1996;97(12):2772-2783).

HSP60, e.g., an immunologically active fragment of HSP60, e.g., p 277(see Elias et al., Eur J Immunol 1995 25(10):2851-7), can also be usedas an autoantigen in the methods and compositions described herein.Other useful epitopes of HSP 60 are described, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No.6,110,746.

Carboxypeptidase H has been identified as an autoantigen, e.g., inpre-Type 1 diabetes patients (Castano et al. (1991) J Clin EndocrinolMetab. 73(6):1197-201; Alcalde et al. J Autoimmun. August 1996;9(4):525-8.). Therefore, carboxypeptidase H or immunologically reactivefragments thereof (e.g., the 136-amino acid fragment ofcarboxypeptidase-H described in Castano, supra) can be used in themethods and compositions described herein.

Peripherin is a 58 KDa diabetes autoantigen identified in nod mice(Boitard et al. (1992) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89(1):172-6. The humanperipherin sequence is shown as SEQ ID NO:6.

Gangliosides can also be useful autoantigens in the methods andcompositions described herein. Gangliosides are sialic acid-containingglycolipids which are formed by a hydrophobic portion, the ceramide, anda hydrophilic part, i.e. the oligosaccharide chain. Gangliosides areexpressed, inter alia, in cytosol membranes of secretory granules ofpancreatic islets. Auto-antibodies to gangliosides have been describedin Type 1 diabetes, e.g., GM 1-2 ganglioside is an islet autoantigen indiabetes autoimmunity and is expressed by human native β cells (Dotta etal. Diabetes. September 1996; 45(9):1193-6). Gangliosides GT3, GD3 andGM-1 are also the target of autoantibodies associated with autoimmunediabetes (reviewed in Dionisi et al. Ann Ist Super Sanita 1997;33(3):433-5). Ganglioside GM3 participates in the pathologicalconditions of insulin resistance (Tagami et al. J Biol Chem Nov. 13,2001; online publication ahead of print).

Insulin B-chain is a preferred diabetes autoantigen. Human insulinB-chain for human vaccine use can be made by a standard solid-phasepeptide synthesis. A procedure for effective solubilization of theinsulin β-chain is described herein. In some embodiments, theautoantigen is human insulin B-chain (amino acids 25-54 of SEQ ID NO:1)or an immunologically active fragment, or variant thereof. In someembodiments, the B-chain or fragment thereof is not recombinant. Forexample, the B-chain or immunogenic fragment or variant thereof is asynthetic peptide, e.g., the B-chain is made by solid-phase synthesis.In some preferred embodiments, the B-chain is solubilized in urea. Insome embodiments, the human insulin B-chain is denatured, e.g.,solubilized in urea and DTT. In a preferred embodiment, the humaninsulin B-chain is between 30-70%, preferably between 40-60%, morepreferably between 45-55% proportion weight by weight (w/w).

Thus, there is provided herein a method of treating, preventing, ordelaying the progression of diabetes mellitus by administering CTLA4 anda Type 1 diabetes autoantigen. The two components may be administeredsimultaneously, sequentially, or with a separate time course (e.g., onein the morning and the other in the evening or in other different timecourses related to each other).

The onset of T1DM may be delayed by the methods as described herein suchthat insulin is not needed by the subject for a longer length of time.Alternatively or in addition, the present method may extend the“honeymoon phase” in an already diabetic subject The honeymoon phase iswhere insulin is secreted by the pancreas, causing high blood sugarlevels to subside, and resulting in normal or near normal glucose levelsdue to responses to insulin injections and treatment.

T1DM may be prevented in a subject by first selecting a subject who issusceptible to developing diabetes and administering a CTLA4 moleculeand a Type 1 diabetes autoantigen as described herein. The subject whois susceptible to developing diabetes may be selected by the expressionof one or more of: GAD65 autoantibodies (GAAs), ICA512 autoantibodies(ICA512AAs), or anti-insulin autoantibodies (IAAs). Each of theseautoantibodies is associated with a risk of progression to autoimmuneType 1 diabetes. Expression of two or more of: GAD65 autoantibodies(GAAs), ICA512 autoantibodies (ICA512AAs), or anti-insulinautoantibodies (IAAs) is associated with a high risk of progression toautoimmune Type 1 diabetes. (Liping Yu et al., Diabetes August 2001 vol.50 no. 8 1735-1740; Verge C F et al., Diabetes 45:926-933, 199; Verge CF. et al, Diabetes 47:1857-1866, 1998; and Bingley P J, et al., Diabetes43:1304-1310, 1994).

T1DM may also be treated by the methods as described herein. Thetreatment is for subjects with residual beta-cell function or those nolonger having any beta-cell function. The treatment may also besuggested for subjects provided exogenous beta-cells through transplantor injection or other beta cell replacement modalities (like embryonicor other stem cell therapies or other replacement modalities).

The combination of a CTLA4 molecule and the T1DM autoantigen asdescribed herein may be administered as part of one or morepharmaceutical compositions. The methods of the invention can preventdiabetes mellitus, or prevent or delay loss of residual β-cell mass,providing a longer remission period reducing short term complicationsand/or delaying the onset of diabetes-related complications at a laterstage of the life.

The CTLA4 molecule and T1DM autoantigen may be combined into a singlepharmaceutical composition. Alternatively, the CTLA4 molecule isprovided in one pharmaceutical composition and the T1DM autoantigen isprovided in a separate pharmaceutical compositions. In this alternative,the two pharmaceutical compositions may have the same or different modesof administration and time course of administration.

The pharmaceutical composition as provided herewith may include apharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The term “pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier” includes any and all solvents, diluents, or otherliquid vehicle, dispersion or suspension aids, surface active agents,isotonic agents, thickening or emulsifying agents, preservatives, solidbinders, lubricants and the like, as suited to the particular dosageform desired. Remington's Pharmaceutical-Sciences, Sixteenth Edition, E.W. Martin (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1980) discloses variouscarriers used in formulating pharmaceutical compositions and knowntechniques for the preparation thereof. Except insofar as anyconventional carrier medium is incompatible with the compounds ofprovided herein, such as by producing any undesirable biological effector otherwise interacting in a deleterious manner with any othercomponent(s) of the pharmaceutical composition, its use is contemplatedto be within the scope of this invention. Some examples of materialswhich can serve as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include, but arenot limited to, sugars such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starchessuch as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivativessuch as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and celluloseacetate; powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatine; talc; excipients such ascocoa butter and suppository waxes; oils such as peanut oil, cottonseedoil; safflower oil, sesame oil; olive oil; corn oil and soybean oil;glycols; such as propylene glycol; esters such as ethyl oleate and ethyllaurate; agar; buffering agents such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminumhydroxide; alginic acid; pyrogenfree water; isotonic saline; Ringer'ssolution; ethyl alcohol, and phosphate buffer solutions, as well asother non-toxic compatible lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate andmagnesium stearate, as well as coloring agents, releasing agents,coating agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents,preservatives and antioxidants can also be present in the composition,according to the judgment of the formulator.

The compounds described herein including pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers can be delivered to a patient using a wide variety of routes ormodes of administration. Suitable routes of administration include, butare not limited to, inhalation, transdermal, oral, rectal, transmucosal,intestinal and parenteral administration, including intramuscular,subcutaneous and intravenous injections.

The compositions as described herein may be administered with anadjuvant. The term “adjuvant” can be a compound that lacks significantactivity administered alone but can potentiate the activity of anothertherapeutic agent. In some embodiments, an adjuvant is selected from thegroup consisting of buffers, anti-microbial preserving agents,surfactants, antioxidants, tonic regulators, antiseptics, thickeners andviscosity improvers. In some embodiments, the adjuvant is IFA or otheroil based adjuvant is present between 30-70%, preferably between 40-60%,more preferably between 45-55% proportion weight by weight (w/w). Insome embodiments, human insulin B-chain and IFA or other oil basedadjuvant are present in about a 50/50 weight by weight ratio. In someembodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is free of contaminants,e.g., pyrogens.

In some embodiments, the autoantigen is lyophilized. In another aspect,the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition containing T1DMautoantigen that is made by the method of: combining T1DM autoantigenand an oil-based carrier, e.g., an oil-based adjuvant, e.g., IFA, orother oil based adjuvant, e.g., Montanide ISA (e.g., Montanide ISA51),and emulsifying the insulin B-chain and oil-based adjuvant. In someembodiments, the T1DM autoantigen is human insulin B-chain orpreproinsulin or an immunologically active fragment or variant thereofwhich is combined with an oil-based carrier where the insulin B-chainand oil-based adjuvant are emulsified. In a preferred embodiment, humaninsulin β-chain and oil-based adjuvant are combined in a weight byweight ratio (w/w) of between 30/70 to 70/30, preferably between 40/60to 60/40, preferably between 45/55 to 55/45, more preferably about a50/50 w/w ratio. In a preferred embodiment, emulsification is performedwith a high pressure syringe. In preferred embodiments, the oil-basedcarrier or adjuvant, and preferably the composition, does not include abacterial component, e.g., a mycobacterial component.

In some embodiments, the T1DM autoantigen is a B-chain or preproinsulinor immunogenically active fragment or variant thereof and is solubilizedin about 3 M to 8 M urea, preferably in about 3.5 M to 7 M urea, orabout 4 M to 6 M urea. In a preferred embodiment, the B-chain orimmunogenically active fragment or variant thereof is solubilized inabout 3 M to 5 M urea, preferably in about 3.5 M to 4.5 M urea, mostpreferably in about 4 M urea. In a preferred embodiment, the β-chain orimmunogenically active fragment or variant thereof is solubilized in 5-8M urea, preferably in about 6 M to 7 M urea. Preferably, the B-chain issolubilized in the presence of a reducing agent, e.g., DTT or anequivalent reducing agent, e.g., 1 to 5 mg of DTT is added during thesolubilization step.

In some embodiments, the composition comprising a Type 1 diabetesautoantigen and/or CTLA4 molecule also includes an oil-based carrier.

The oil-based carrier is a composition that includes at least 10% byweight of a natural or synthetic oil suitable for administration to ahuman in conjunction with a therapeutic agent is one preferredembodiment. In preferred embodiments, the carrier includes at least 20,30, 50, 70, 80, 90, 95, 98, or 99% oil by weight. In some embodiments,the oil-based carrier can include less than 70, 60, 50, 40, 30 or 20%oil by weight. In preferred embodiments, the oil will be in the range of10 to 95%, preferably 20 to 90% or 30 to 70% oil by weight. The oilshould be chosen such that it provides for sustained release of asubstance dispersed within it when administered to a subject. Suitableoils include mineral oil (e.g., Drakeol 6 VR light mineral oil),vegetable oil, squalene, or liquid paraffin. In some embodiments, theoil-based carrier can contain more than one type of oil. In someembodiments, the oil-based carrier can include an immune stimulator,e.g., an immunostimulating glucan, but it is much preferred that theoil-based carrier does not include an immune stimulator, e.g., animmunostimulating glucan, a bacterial component, e.g., a mycobacterialcomponent. In a preferred embodiment, the oil-based carrier does notinclude an alum component.

While not wanting to be bound by theory, an oil based carrier isbelieved to work by triggering the immunocompetent cells, which arerelated to the inflammatory and protective immune response ability. Anoil-based carrier can also act as an antigen vehicle and a slow releaseor long-term antigen presentation device. When injected into a subject,an oil-based carrier and antigen composition can form a depot of antigenat the injection site, thereby protecting the antigen from degradation.From this depot the antigen can be released slowly into the system andprovides a prolonged antigen presentation as well as expanded totalcontact surface area and the attraction of inflammatory cells.Macrophages can digest most of the incorporated materials and presentthe processed antigens on their surface. From this depot the antigen canbe released slowly into the system and provides a prolonged antigensupply to act as costimulatory modulator.

Oil based carriers optionally include an emulsifier or surfactantcomponent. The emulsifier or surfactant (and the amount of emulsifier orsurfactant) is chosen such that it facilitates the mixture or dispersionof a substance, e.g., an antigen preparation, with the oil. An oil-basedcarrier can include 0.1 to 50%, preferably 1 to 30%, more preferably 5to 20% by weight of a surfactant or emulsifier. Examples of emulsifiersor surfactants include Arlacel A, mannide oleate (e.g., Montanide80-mannide monooleate), anhydrous mannitol/oleic acid ester,polyoxyethylene or polyoxypropylene.

Incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) is a preferred delivery vehicle forthe autoantigen in humans. The methods of the invention can preventdiabetes mellitus, or prevent or delay loss of residual β-cell mass,providing a longer remission period and delaying the onset of diabetesrelated, usually progressive, complications at a later stage of thelife.

An oil-based carrier or adjuvant typically consists of two components:(1) an oil, and (2) an emulsifier or surfactant, mixed with water.Suitable oils and emulsifiers are known in the art. For example, the oilcan be mineral oil, vegetable oil, squalene or liquid paraffin. Theemulsifier or surfactant can be, e.g., Arlacel A, mannide oleate,anhydrous mannitol/oleic acid ester, polyoxyethylene orpolyoxypropylene. Exemplary oil-based adjuvants include conventionalIFA, Montanide ISA adjuvants, or Hunter's TiterMax adjuvant. Inpreferred embodiments, the adjuvant includes 20 to 95%, preferably 30 to90%, more preferably 40 to 70% by weight of an oil phase, and 0.1 to50%, preferably 1 to 30%, more preferably 5 to 20% by weight of asurfactant or emulsifier. Various types of oil-based adjuvants aredescribed, e.g., in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,814,321, 6,299,884, 6,235,282, and5,976,538.

IFA is typically a mixture of a non-metabolizable oil (e.g., mineraloil), water, and a surfactant (e.g., Arlacel A). Unlike CompleteFreund's Adjuvant (CFA), IFA does not contain a bacterial component,e.g., mycobacteria. The first large-scale vaccinations using IFA inhumans took place on US military personnel (Davenport (1968) Ann Allergy26:288-292; Beebe et al., (1972) Am J Epidemiol 95:337-346; Salk & Salk(1977) Science 195:834-847). The findings were essentially negative withrespect to malignancy, allergic diseases and collagenosis, but there wasevidence that some men had a cyst like reaction at the site ofinoculation. Later studies confirmed that these side effects were due toincorrect administration i.e. they were given erroneously s.c. insteadof i.m. From these experiments, IFA was regarded by some as unsuitablefor human purposes, although it has remained widely used in animalresearch. In recent years, newer forms of IFA have been shown safe forhuman use in HIV immunotherapy or therapeutic vaccinations (Turner etal. (1994) AIDS 8:1429-1435; Trauger et al. (1995) J Acquir Immune DeficSyndr Hum Retrovirol 10 Supp2:S74-82; Trauger et al. (1994) J Infect Dis169:1256-1264).

Montanide ISA Adjuvants (Seppic, Paris, France) are a group ofoil/surfactant based adjuvants in which different surfactants arecombined with either a non-metabolizable mineral oil, a metabolizableoil, or a mixture of the two. They are prepared for use as an emulsionwith aqueous Ag solution. The surfactant for Montanide ISA 50(ISA=Incomplete Seppic Adjuvant) is mannide oleate, a major component ofthe surfactant in Freund's adjuvants. The surfactants of the Montanidegroup undergo strict quality control to guard against contamination byany substances that could cause excessive inflammation, as has beenfound for some lots of Arlacel A used in Freund's adjuvant. The variousMontanide ISA group of adjuvants are used as water-in-oil emulsions,oil-in-water emulsions, or water-in-oil-in-water emulsions. Thedifferent adjuvants accommodate different aqueous phase/oil phaseratios, because of the variety of surfactant and oil combinations.

Hunter's TiterMax (CytRx Corp., Norcross, Ga.) is anoil/surfactant-based adjuvant prepared as a water-in-oil emulsion in amanner similar to that used for conventional Freund's adjuvants.However, it uses a metabolizable oil (squalene) and a nonionicsurfactant that has good protein antigen-binding capacity as well asadjuvant activity. The adjuvant activity may relate, in part, to thesurfactant's ability to activate complement and bind complementcomponents, as this helps target the Ag to follicular dendritic cells inthe spleen and lymph nodes. The surfactant used in the commerciallyavailable adjuvant is one of a number of synthetic nonionic blockcopolymers of polyoxyethylene and polyoxypropylene developed by Hunter(Hunter et al., 1991 Vaccine 9:250-256). The utilization ofcopolymer-coated microparticles to stabilize the emulsion permitsformation of stable emulsions with less than 20% oil, an importantfactor in minimizing total adjuvant injected.

An adjuvant can be used with antigens to elicit cell-mediated immunityand the production of antibodies of protective isotypes (IgG2a in miceand IgG1 in primates). Different types of adjuvants share similar sideeffects, such as a reaction at the injection site and pyrogenicity.Alum, a commonly used adjuvant for human vaccine also produces anappreciable granulomatous response at the injection site (Allison &Byars (1991) Mol Immunol 28:279-284). The mode of action of anincomplete Freund's adjuvant can involve non-specific as well asspecific immune responses. IFA seems to work by triggering theimmunocompetent cells, which are related to the inflammatory as well asprotective ability. IFA also acts as an antigen vehicle and a slowrelease or long-term antigen presentation device. Injecting a patientwith an IFA and antigen compound, it forms a depot of antigen at theinjection site, thereby protecting the antigen from degradation. Fromthis depot the antigen is released slowly into the system and provides aprolonged antigen presentation as well as expanded total contact surfacearea and the attraction of inflammatory cells. Macrophages digest mostof the incorporated materials and present the processed antigens ontheir surface.

The specific enhancing effect of the IFA on the antigen immunogenicityhas been found to lead to increased humoral immunity (preferentiallyprotective antibody production; IgG1 in humans and IgG2a in mice) and toelicit specific cell mediated immunity (preferentially Th2 type andTregs). Specifically, human recombinant insulin B-chain in IFA resultsin Th2 cytokine pattern in NOD mice islets (Ramiya et al. (1996) JAutoimmun 9:349-356). IFA is unique among adjuvants tried for diabetesprevention in animal models. Ramiya and coworkers (supra) concluded thatboth alum and DPT as adjuvants have ‘non-specific’ protective effectsunrelated to the antigen used, while IFA is the only one with antigenspecific protective effect for diabetes prevention in animals.

IFA, preferably an IFA approved for human use, e.g., Montanide (e.g.,Montanide ISA51, Seppic Inc., France) or an equivalent composition, is apreferred adjuvant for use in the methods and vaccines described herein.Montanide ISA51 has shown no systemic or significant local side effectsin our animal and in our human studies.

For oral administration, the compounds can be formulated readily bycombining the active compound(s) with pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers well known in the art. Such carriers enable the compounds ofthe invention to be formulated as tablets, pills, dragees, capsules,liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions and the like, for oralingestion by a patient to be treated. Pharmaceutical preparations fororal use can be obtained solid excipient, optionally grinding aresulting mixture, and processing the mixture of granules, after addingsuitable auxiliaries, if desired to obtain tablets or dragee cores.Suitable excipients are, in particular, fillers such as sugars,including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; cellulosepreparations such as, for example, maize starch, wheat starch, ricestarch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose,hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and/orpolyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). If desired, disintegrating agents may beadded, such as the cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginicacid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate.

The compounds may be formulated for parenteral administration byinjection, e.g., by bolus injection or continuous infusion. Injection(intravenous or subcutaneous) is a preferred method of administrationfor the compositions of the current invention. Formulations forinjection may be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or inmulti-dose containers, with an added preservative. The compositions maytake such forms as suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily oraqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents such as suspending,stabilizing and/or dispersing agents may be added, such as thecross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a saltthereof such as sodium alginate.

In some embodiments, the combination as described herein may beadministered parenterally, by injection subcutaneously, orintramuscularly. In some embodiments, a preferred mode of administrationis intramuscularly. For example, the Type 1 diabetes autoantigen asdescribed herein can be given as an intramuscular injection, preferablya deep intramuscular injection, in a small volume, e.g., 1 ml. Theautoantigen can be administered once, or more than once. It can begiven, for example, before, or after the onset of Type 1 diabetesmellitus.

The dosage may also depend on the route of administration and will varyaccording to the size of the host. For example, 2 mg of human insulin Bchain solution can be administered to an adult human. The concentrationof the active ingredient protein in an immunogenic composition accordingto the invention is in general about 1 to 95%.

A vaccine can also contain an adjuvant, e.g., an oil based adjuvant,e.g., IFA. Preferably, the vaccine contains an IFA suitable and approvedfor human use, e.g., Montanide ISA 51 or an equivalent composition.

The vaccines are prepared under conditions suitable for humanadministration. Preferably, the vaccine injection is prepared as anemulsion immediately before administration, under sterile conditions, byusing high pressure sterile syringes as a 50/50 (w/w) emulsion ofinsulin B-chain/IFA.

The methods and vaccines described herein can be used to prevent theonset of an autoimmune disease, e.g., diabetes mellitus. The methods andvaccines can also be used to arrest the autoimmune destruction oftissue, e.g., pancreatic β-cells. The methods and vaccines are useful toarrest the autoimmune destruction, even at a late stage. For example, atthe time of clinical onset of type 1 diabetes mellitus, significantnumber of insulin producing β-cells are destroyed but around 15% maybeas much as 40% are still capable of insulin production. If theautoimmune process can be arrested even in this late stage, these cellscan be preserved. The β-cells have some limited capacity to replicateand precursors may form new β-cells.

Pharmaceutical formulations for parenteral administration includeaqueous solutions of the active compounds in water-soluble form.Additionally, suspensions of the active compounds may be prepared asappropriate oily injection suspensions. Suitable lipophilic solvents orvehicles include fatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acidesters, such as ethyl oleate or triglycerides, or liposomes. Aqueousinjection suspensions may contain substances, which increase theviscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,sorbitol, or dextran. Optionally, the suspension may also containsuitable stabilizers or agents, which increase the solubility of thecompounds to allow for the preparation of highly, concentratedsolutions. For injection, the agents of the invention may be formulatedin aqueous solutions, preferably in physiologically compatible bufferssuch as Hanks's solution, Ringer's solution, or physiological salinebuffer. Alternatively, the active ingredient may be in powder form forconstitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water,before use.

The amount of the combination of a CTLA4 molecule and insulin β-chainprovided to the subject will depend on both the size and weight of thesubject as well as the progression of the disease. For the compoundsdescribed herein, the therapeutically effective amount can be initiallydetermined from in vitro assays. Since the compounds of the presentinvention may have a low absorption and low bioavailability, thetherapeutically effective amount may be determined from, for example,fecal concentration of the compounds or metabolites thereof orbiomarkers from the blood. As is well known in the art, therapeuticallyeffective amounts for use in humans can also be determined from animalmodels. A therapeutically effective dose can also be determined fromhuman data for compounds which are known to exhibit similarpharmacological activities. The applied dose can be adjusted based onthe relative potency of the administered compound as compared with theknown compound.

Patient doses for parenteral administration of the compounds describedherein, typically range from about 1 mg/day to about 10,000 mg/day, moretypically from about 10 mg/day to about 1,000 mg/day or from about 250mg/day to about 2,000 mg/day, and most typically from about 50 mg/day toabout 500 mg/day or from about 0.5 mg/day to about 10 mg/day. Stated interms of patient body weight, typical dosages range from about 0.01 toabout 150 mg/kg/day, more typically from about 0.1 to about 15mg/kg/day, and most typically from about 1 to about 10 mg/kg/day, forexample 5 mg/kg/day or 3 mg/kg/day.

Both the CTLA4 molecule and the insulin B-chain may be administered in asingle dose or they may be administered separately, where separateadministration contemplates administration at near the same time oradministration at different times, such as one in the morning and theother in the evening, or one twice a day and the other once a day. Thetwo drugs may be given simultaneously or in different order, i.e.CTLA4-Ig first followed by insulin B-chain in IFA or insulin B-chain andthen CTLA4-Ig at different timepoints.

The dosing may be over a period of time, such as once a month, or every28 days. In some embodiments, additional doses (e.g., bolus dosing) maybe given at the beginning of treatment. In some embodiments, a dosecontaining approximately 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 100 mg/kg of thefusion protein. In some embodiments, a dose containing approximately 1,3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 500 microg/kg of the diabetesautoantigen.

The definitions of terms used herein are meant to incorporate thepresent state-of-the-art definitions recognized for each term in thechemical and pharmaceutical fields. Where appropriate, exemplificationis provided. The definitions apply to the terms as they are usedthroughout this specification, unless otherwise limited in specificinstances, either individually or as part of a larger group.

As used herein, the terms “administering” or “administration” areintended to encompass all means for directly and indirectly delivering acompound to its intended site of action.

An “autoantigen” as used herein, is a protein that despite being anormal cell or tissue constituent, can be the target of a humoral orcell-mediated immune response in a subject. For example, diabetes Type 1autoantigens are typically normal protein constituents of pancreaticcells. An “immunologically active fragment” of an autoantigen describedherein is an autoantigen in which one or more amino acid residues havebeen deleted and the fragment retains the ability to react with immunecells or with an autoantigen antibody or to stimulate the production ofantibodies against the autoantigen. For example, an immunologicallyactive fragment can be an autoantigen polypeptide in which residues havebeen successively deleted from the amino- and/or carboxyl-termini, whilesubstantially retaining immunogenic activity. For example, insulinB-chain (amino acids 25-54 of SEQ ID NO:1) is an immunologically activefragment of preproinsulin; a polypeptide that includes amino acids 33-47of SEQ ID NO: 1 is an immunologically active fragment of B-chain; apolypeptide that includes amino acids from about 600 to 979 of SEQ IDNO:3 includes an immunologically active fragment of IA-2. In a preferredembodiment, the immunologically active fragment is a fragment of any ofSEQ ID Nos: 1-6. Preferred fragments lacks one or more biologicalactivities of the native autoantigen, but retain the ability to reactwith an autoantigen antibody and immune cells. E.g., a preferred insulinfragment or variant lacks a hypoglycemic effect. Preferably, animmunologically active fragment of an autoantigen described herein isbetween 4 and 400 amino acid residues in length, more preferably between10 and 300 amino acid residues in length, more preferably between 30 and200 amino acid residues in length.

The phrase “delaying the progression” as used herein in the context ofdelaying the progression of diabetes mellitus means that the loss offunctional residual β-cell mass, after the clinical onset of Type 1diabetes is delayed. The delayed progression of T1DM can be measured,for example, by measuring C-peptide production.

An “immunologically active variant” of an autoantigen described hereinis an autoantigen that has been modified by addition, modification orsubstitution of one or more amino acid residues in the naturallyoccurring autoantigen and retains the ability to react with anautoantigen antibody or to stimulate the production of antibodiesagainst the autoantigen. The variants described herein encompass allelicand polymorphic variants, and also muteins and fusion proteins thatretain the ability to bind an autoantigen antibody or to produce animmune response against the autoantigen in a human. For example, up to20%, preferably up to 10%, of the amino acid residues of an autoantigencan be replaced with substitute amino acids, so long as the variantretains the ability to bind autoantigen or produce an immune responseagainst the autoantigen, e.g., in a human. A variant can also include anautoantigen or fragment thereof described herein in which one or moreamino acids have been inserted or added, e.g., an autoantigen that hasbeen coupled or fused to a carrier peptide. Also included are variantscontaining modifications, such as incorporation of unnatural amino acidresidues, or phosphorylated, sulfonated, or biotinylated amino acidresidues. Modifications of amino acid residues may also includealiphatic esters or amides of the carboxyl terminus or of residuescontaining carboxyl side chains, O-acyl derivatives of hydroxylgroup-containing residues, and N-acyl derivatives of the amino-terminalamino acid or amino-group containing residues, e.g., lysine or arginine.Other modifications include the addition of other moieties, particularlythose that may increase the immunogenicity of the autoantigen. Preferredvariants lack one or more biological activities of the nativeautoantigen, but retain the ability to react with an autoantigenantibody or immune cells. E.g., a preferred insulin variant lacks ahypoglycemic effect.

The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to additives orcompositions that are physiologically tolerable and do not typicallyproduce an allergic or similar untoward reaction, such as gastric upset,dizziness and the like, when administered to an animal, such as a mammal(e.g., a human). The term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includesany and all solvents, diluents, or other liquid vehicle, dispersion orsuspension aids, surface active agents, isotonic agents, thickening oremulsifying agents, preservatives, solid binders, lubricants and thelike, as suited to the particular dosage form desired. Remington's, TheScience and Practice of Pharmacy, (Gennaro, A. R., ed., 19^(th) edition,1995, Mack Pub. Co.), discloses various carriers used in formulatingpharmaceutical compositions and known techniques for the preparationthereof. Except insofar as any conventional carrier medium isincompatible with the compounds of provided herein, such as by producingany undesirable biological effect or otherwise interacting in adeleterious manner with any other component(s) of the pharmaceuticalcomposition, its use is contemplated to be within the scope of thisinvention. Some examples of materials which can serve aspharmaceutically acceptable carriers include, but are not limited to,sugars such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches such as cornstarch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivatives such as sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; powderedtragacanth; malt; gelatine; talc. Excipients such as cocoa butter andsuppository waxes; oils such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil; saffloweroil, sesame oil; olive oil; corn oil and soybean oil; glycols; such aspropylene glycol; esters such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; agar;buffering agents such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide;alginic acid; pyrogenfree water; isotonic saline; Ringer's solution;ethyl alcohol, and phosphate buffer solutions, as well as othernon-toxic compatible lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate andmagnesium stearate, as well as coloring agents, releasing agents,coating agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents,preservatives and antioxidants can also be present in the composition,according to the judgment of the formulator.

The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to a composition describedherein, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, with other agentssuch as carriers and/or excipients. Preferably, a pharmaceuticalcomposition will have the active agent present at at least 95% purity,or 98% purity, or 99% purity, or more.

As used herein, the term “subject” is a human or other animal, having adiabetes, pre-diabetes, or a predisposition to diabetes. Thus, in someembodiments the subject will be in need of the therapeutic treatment asprovided herein. Preferred patients are mammals. Examples of patientsinclude but are not limited to, humans, horses, monkeys, dogs, cats,mice, rates, cows, pigs, goats and sheep. In some embodiments,“subjects” are generally human patients having diabetes. In someembodiments, “subjects” are human patients who have been diagnosed withT1DM within the last 200, 100, or 50 days. In some embodiments,“subjects” are human patients who have been diagnosed with diabetesmellitus but still have residual beta-cell function. In some suchembodiments the residual beta-cell function is detectable or at least10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, or more of the beta cells in a fullyfunctioning pancreas.

The term “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amounteffective, at dosages and for periods of time necessary, to achieve thedesired biological or medicinal response in a cell culture, tissuesystem, animal, or human (e.g., the desired therapeutic result). Atherapeutically effective amount of the composition may vary accordingto factors such as the disease state, age, sex, and weight of theindividual, and the ability of the CTLA4 molecule and/or diabetesautoantigen to elicit a desired response in the individual. Atherapeutically effective amount is also one in which any toxic ordetrimental effects of the pharmacological agent are outweighed by thetherapeutically beneficial effects. In some embodiments, the responseincludes alleviation and/or delay of onset of one or more symptoms ofthe disease, condition, or disorder being treated.

The term “treatment” or “treating” as used herein is defined as theapplication or administration of the therapeutic agents to a subject, orapplication or administration of the therapeutic agents to an isolatedtissue or cell line from a subject who has diabetes, a symptom ofdisease or a predisposition toward a disease. Treatment is intended toencompass preventing the onset, slowing the progression, reversing orotherwise ameliorating, improve, or affect the disease, the symptoms orof disease or the predisposition toward disease. For example, treatmentof a subject, e.g., a human subject, with a composition describedherein, can slow, improve, or stop the ongoing autoimmunity, e.g., areaction against pancreatic β-cells, in a subject before, during, orafter the clinical onset of Type 1 diabetes.

The term “about” or “approximately” means within an acceptable errorrange for the particular value as determined by one of ordinary skill inthe art, which will depend in part on how the value is measured ordetermined—e.g., the limitations of the measurement system, or thedegree of precision required for a particular purpose. For example,“about” can mean within 1 or within 2 standard deviations, as per thepractice in the art. Alternatively, “about” can mean a range of up to20%, preferably up to 10%, and more preferably up to 5% of a givenvalue. Where particular values are described in the application andclaims, unless otherwise stated, the term “about” meaning within anacceptable error range for the particular value should be assumed.

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,”and “the,” include plural referents unless the context clearly indicatesotherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a molecule” includes one ormore of such molecules, “a resin” includes one or more of such differentresins and reference to “the method” includes reference to equivalentsteps and methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art that couldbe modified or substituted for the methods described herein.

While the above description provides examples and specific details ofvarious embodiments, it will be appreciated that some features and/orfunctions of the described embodiments admit to modification withoutdeparting from the scope of the described embodiments. The abovedescription is intended to be illustrative of the invention, the scopeof which is limited only by the language of the claims appended hereto.

EXAMPLES

Aspects of the applicant's teachings may be further understood in lightof the following examples, which should not be construed as limiting thescope of the applicant's teachings in any way.

Example 1—Administration of Abatacept

Patients (aged 6-45 years) diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes within thepast 100 days were parallel-screened for this study. Patients wereeligible to participate in the study if they had at least onediabetes-related autoantibody (microassayed insulin antibodies [ifduration of insulin therapy was less than 7 days]; glutamic aciddecarboxylase-65 [GAD-65] antibodies; islet-cell antigen-512 [ICA-512]antibodies; or islet-cell autoantibodies) and had stimulated C-peptideconcentrations of 0⋅2 nmol/L or higher measured during a mixed-mealtolerance test (MMTT) done at least 21 days after diagnosis of diabetesand within 37 days of randomization.

People whose blood samples screened positive for serum antibodies tohepatitis B surface antigen, hepatitis C, or HIV were excluded fromparticipation. Samples were also tested for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV).Individuals who had evidence of active EBV infection at the time ofscreening were ineligible. Participants who showed evidence of activeEBV infection after randomization did not receive additional study druguntil resolution.

Patients were randomly assigned in a 2:1 ratio, stratified byparticipating site, to receive experimental treatment with abatacept orplacebo using a double blind protocol. Table 1 provides the baselinedemographic and laboratory characteristics of participants

TABLE 1 Abatacept Placebo (n = 77) (n = 35) Age Mean (years) 13.9 (6.9)13.7 (5.3) Median (years) 12 (6-36) 14 (7-34) Men 41 (53%) 25 (71%)Race* White 71 (93%) 32 (91%) Ethnic origin Non-Hispanic 67 (87%) 31(89%) Number of diabetes-related autoantibodies† 1 9 (12 4 (11%) 2 26(34%) 9 (26%) 3 26 (34%) 15 (43%) 4 16 (21%) 7 (20%) Number of days fromdiagnosis to 87.9 (14.1) 83.2 (17.8) first infusion‡ Weight (kg) 52.6(21.9) 53.0 (19.7) Body-mass index (kg/m²) 21.0 (4.5) 20.5 (3.9) MeanAUC for C-peptide (nmol/L) 0.743 (0.42) 0.745 (0.31) HbA1c at baseline*(%) 6.31% (0.80) 6.74% (0.94) Total daily insulin dose at 0.385 (0.24)0.339 (0.22) baseline* (U/kg) Ketoacidosis at diagnosis 25 (32%) 8 (23%)Diabetes-associated HLA alleles present* DR3 and DR4 25 (34%) 16 (49%)DR3 only 11 (15%) 5 (15%) DR4 only 30 (41%) 10 (30%) Neither 8 (11%) 2(6%) Data are n (%), mean (SD), or median (range). AUC = area under thecurve. HbA1c = glycated haemoglobin A1c. *Excludes participants withdata missing for indicated variable (number missing: race, 1; HbA1c, 2;insulin use, 1; HLA allele status, 4). †Islet-cell autoantibodies byimmunofluorescence not tested on 16 patients (considered negative forcount). ‡Range 51-108 for abatacept group and 38-107 for placebo.

Abatacept (Orencia, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, N.J., USA) wasgiven on days 1, 14, and 28, and then every 28 days with the last doseon day 700 (total 27 doses) as a 30-min intravenous infusion at a doseof 10 mg/kg (maximum 1000 mg per dose) in a 100 mL 0⋅9% sodium chlorideinfusion. Normal saline infusion was used as placebo. Patients did notreceive any premedication.

All patients received intensive diabetes management. The goal was toachieve intensive glycaemic control as recommended by the AmericanDiabetes Association. (American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care2011; 33 (suppl 1): S11-61.) Patients used either multiple daily insulininjections or an insulin pump. Blood glucose monitoring was done bymeans of frequent daily blood glucose monitoring. Use of non-insulinpharmaceuticals that affect glycaemic control was not allowed.

Blood samples were analyzed centrally. C-peptide concentrations weremeasured from frozen plasma with a two-site immunoenzymometric assay(Tosoh Bioscience, South San Francisco, Calif., USA). Glycatedhaemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) was measured with ion-exchange high-performanceliquid chromatography (Variant II, Bio-Rad Diagnostics, Hercules,Calif., USA). Reliability coefficients for each assay were greater than0⋅99 from split duplicate samples. Biochemical autoantibodies(microassayed insulin antibodies, GAD-65 antibodies, ICA-512 antibodies)were measured with radioimmunobinding assays and islet-cellautoantibodies (ICA) with indirect immunofluorescence. A routinechemistry panel was done (Roche Diagnostics (Indianapolis, Ind., USA]Hitachi 917 Analyzer and reagents). HLA class II alleles were measuredwith PCR amplification and sequence-specific hybridization. β-cellfunction was assessed by stimulated C-peptide secretion. Theprespecified primary outcome of this trial was a comparison of the areaunder the curve (AUC) of stimulated C-peptide response over the first 2h of a 4-h MMTT2, done at the 24-month visit. The 4-h MMTTs were done atbaseline and at 24 months; 2-h MMTTs were obtained at 3, 6, 12, and 18months. Patients who had completed their 2-year visit MMTT were includedin the primary outcome assessment. After completion of the 2-yeartreatment phase, participants entered a 2-year follow-up phase tocontinue to assess safety and efficacy, including an MMTT every 6months. Prespecified secondary outcomes included: slope of C-peptideover time, difference between groups in incidence of loss of peakC-peptide to less than 0⋅2 nmol/L, differences in HbA1c and insulin doseover time, and safety. Prespecified subgroup factors included age, sex,race, baseline C-peptide, baseline insulin use, baseline HbA1c, and HLAtype.

Spotfire S+8.1, a statistical analysis software, was used for allanalyses. A sample size of 108 participants was planned to provide 85%power to detect a 50% increase in geometric mean C-peptide relative tothe placebo group using a test at the 0⋅05 level (one-sided), with 10%loss to follow-up and a 2:1 allocation to treatment versus control(based on an estimated mean of 0⋅248 and SD of 0⋅179, on the transformedscale). All analyses were based on the prespecified intention to treatcohort with known measurements. Missing values were assumed to bemissing at random. The p values associated with the intention-to-treattreatment comparisons of the primary and secondary endpoints aretwo-sided, although the design of the trial was based on a one-sidedhypothesis test. Interim analysis for endpoint treatment effect was doneand reported to the data and safety monitoring board once in accordanceto the method of Lan and DeMets with O'Brien-Fleming boundaries. (Lan KK G, DeMets D L. Biometrika 1983; 70: 659-63.) The prespecified analysismethod for C-peptide mean AUC, HbA1c, and total daily insulin dose wasan analysis of covariance model adjusting for age, sex, and baselinevalue of the dependent variable, and treatment assignment. The predictedmeans and associated 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each treatmentgroup were established at the means of the other covariates. Thesignificance levels associated with the treatment effect were from theWald test (from the fitted model). A normalizing transformation oflog(XC-Pep+1) was prespecified for C-peptide AUC mean, and normal plotsof the residuals suggested that it was adequate. The C-peptide mean AUCequals the AUC divided by the 2-h interval (i.e., AUC/120). The AUC wascomputed using the trapezoidal rule from the timed measurements ofC-peptide during the MMTT. The time to first stimulated peak C-peptideof less than 0⋅2 nmol/L (a level above which was associated withdecreased risk of complications in Diabetes Control and ComplicationTrial) was analyzed with standard survival methods (Cox model andKaplan-Meier method). Adverse event grades were analyzed with theWilcoxon rank sum test. (Agresti A. Categorical data analysis. New York,N.Y., USA: John Wiley and Sons, 1990.) Mean rate of change of C-peptidemean AUC from 6 to 24 months was estimated with a mixed-effects modelwith both random intercept and slope adjusting for age, sex, baselineC-peptide mean AUC, and treatment assignment. The initial fit included afixed interaction effect of treatment and time, but was removed becauseof the absence of any statistical evidence of it being other than zero.To assess the treatment effect over the entire time period, we fitted asimilar mixed model to the data with the differences that we definedtime without structure and grouped by 6-month intervals.

Of the 112 patients enrolled in the study, 77 were randomly assigned toreceive experimental treatment with abatacept and 35 were assigned toreceive placebo. Table 1 summarizes the baseline characteristics of thetwo groups. The only noteworthy imbalances were the greater proportionof men in the placebo group than in the abatacept group and higher meanHbA1c in the placebo group. The number of infusions actuallyadministered by treatment group were compared using a Wilcoxon rank sumtest; no significant difference was detected (p=0⋅61). Overall, 2514(83%) of 3024 potential infusions were given, and many that were notgiven were per protocol (e.g., patient developed EBV infection or becamepregnant). 689 (93%) of 738 expected MMTTs were done. In the primaryanalysis at 2 years, participants assigned to abatacept had a geometricmean stimulated C-peptide 2-h AUC of 0⋅375 nmol/L (95% CI 0⋅290-0⋅465)versus 0⋅266 nmol/L (0⋅171-0⋅368) for those assigned to placebo. Theadjusted population C-peptide mean 2-h AUC at 2 years was 0⋅378 nmol/Lfor the abatacept group and 0⋅238 nmol/L for the placebo group; thus,C-peptide AUC at 2 years was 59% (95% CI 6⋅1-112) higher with abatacept(p=0⋅0029). The result remained unchanged and significant (p=0⋅0028)when baseline HbA1c was added as a covariate. To address the differencein C-peptide concentrations from baseline to the 2-year assessments(primary endpoint), C-peptide results for 3, 6, 12, and 18 months wereseparately modeled.

FIG. 1 shows the adjusted population C-peptide mean 2-h AUC over 2years. Patients who received abatacept had a significantly higher meanAUC at 6, 12, and 18 months than did those assigned to placebo, and overall time points in aggregate (p=0⋅0022). To calculate the effect oftreatment on delaying the reduction of C-peptide, we calculated thepredicted population mean of C-peptide AUC mean by treatment group overtime (FIG. 2). The lines are based on the fitting of a mixed linearmodel using all available data from MMTTs at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months.When testing for the improvement in the fit for the interaction term ofslope and treatment (i.e., testing the evidence that the two treatmentgroups had differing C-peptide decay rates), this result was notsignificant (p=0⋅85). Consequently, a simpler model assuming identicalslopes was used and FIG. 2 shows these results. Thus, estimated lag timein the means of the abatacept group to drop to the same level as thoseof the placebo group was 9⋅6 months (95% CI 3⋅47-15⋅6). By the 24-monthassessment, (32%) patients in the abatacept group had an AUC peakstimulated C-peptide less than 0⋅2 nmol/L, compared with 15 (43%)patients on placebo (FIG. 3). The adjusted relative (abatacept toplacebo groups) risk of peak C-peptide falling below 0⋅2 nmol/L was0⋅433 (95% CI 0⋅218-0⋅861). During the 24 months of follow-up, theabatacept group had a lower adjusted mean HbA1c (FIG. 4) than did theplacebo group (for all time points in the aggregate, p=0⋅002), althoughHbA1c was also lower at baseline. Nonetheless, even after adjustment forthe difference at baseline, the treatment group difference over 24months persists (p=0⋅0071). At study end, 34 (47%) patients on abatacepthad HbA1c lower than 7% compared with eight (26%) on placebo. This isparticularly noteworthy as 86% of all patients were under 18 years ofage; in this group this HbA1c is better that the ADA age-specific targetHbA1c. Participants in the abatacept group had lower insulin doses atsome time points (6 and 12 months) during the study, but at 24 months,insulin doses in the two groups were similar (FIG. 4; p=NS at 24 months,but because of differences at the earlier time points, p=0⋅040 for alltime points in the aggregate).

FIG. 5 shows the results of a homogeneity test of treatment effect onage, sex, race, baseline C-peptide, baseline insulin use, baselineHbA1c, and HLA type. The apparent adverse effect of abatacept innon-white participants might be hypothesis-generating, however thegroups size was small.

Table 2 and Table 3 summarize safety and adverse events. Abatacept waswell tolerated. Infusion-related adverse events occurred with lowfrequency (47 of 2514 infusions [2%] involving 27 patients) and were notclinically significant. Of these, 36 reactions occurred in 17 (22%) of77 patients on abatacept and 11 reactions in six (17%) of 35 patients onplacebo (p=0⋅62 for proportion of participants by Fisher's exact test).Overall adverse event rate (including laboratory abnormalities) was lowwith no difference between the two groups. Specifically, there was noincrease in infection (including EBV) or in neutropenia (which occurredin seven [9%] of patients on abatacept, five [14%] on placebo). Therewere seven episodes of hypoglycemia reported as an adverse event, two ofwhich were severe hypoglycemia (one in each group).

TABLE 2 Number of patients by worst grade of adverse effects Abatacept(n = 77) Placebo (n = 35) None 14 (18%) 8 (23%) Grade 1 1 (1%) 1 (3%)Grade 2 44 (57%) 17 (49%) Grade 3 12 (16%) 7 (20%) Grade 4 5 (6%) 2 (6%)Grade 5 1 (1%)* 0 Data are n (%). Worst grade by treatment group was notstatistically different with a Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test. *Accidentaldeath, unrelated to study.

TABLE 3 Number of events and patients by type of adverse event PlaceboPlacebo Abatacept (n = 35) Abatacept (n = 35) (n = 77) Number of (n =77) Number of Number of patients Number of patients events with eventsevents with events Allergy/immunol- 3 2 (3%) 0 0 ogy Auditory/ear 3 3(4%) 0 0 Blood/bone marrow 16 11 (14%) 18 6 (17%) Cardiac arrhythmia 1 1(1%) 1 1 (3%) Cardiac, general 2 2 (3%) 0 0 Constitutional 19 15 (19%) 22 (6%) symptoms Death* 1 1 (1%) 0 0 Dermatology/skin 15 13 (17%) 5 4(11%) Endocrine 4 4 (5%) 2 2 (6%) Gastrointestinal 30 18 (23%) 11 7(20%) Infection 63 32 (42%) 31 15 (43%) Hypoglycaemia 5 3 (4%) 2 1 (3%)Metabolic/labora- 8 6 (8%) 4 2 (6%) tory† Musculoskeletal/soft 13 11(14%) 7 6 (17%) tissue Neurology 13 8 (10%) 3 2 (6%) Ocular/visual 3 3(4%) 1 1 (3%) Pain 7 6 (8%) 5 4 (11%) Pulmonary/upper 20 10 (13%) 7 4(11%) respiratory Renal/genitourinary 0 0 1 1 (3%) Secondary malig- 1 1(1%) 0 0 nancy Sexual/reproductive 1 1 (1%) 0 0 functionSurgery/intraopera- 2 2 (3%) 0 0 tive injury Syndromes 9 9 (12%) 5 5(14%) Total 239 105 Data are n or n (%). Adverse effect category bytreatment group was tested with a one-sided (alternative of higherfrequency in abatacept group) Fisher's Exact Test; only constitutionalsymptoms were significant (p = 0.049). *Accidental death, unrelated tostudy. †Other than hypoglycaemia.

Results show that over 2 years co-stimulation modulation with abataceptslows the reduction in β-cell function in recent-onset Type 1 diabetesby 9⋅6 months. The early beneficial effect suggests that T-cellactivation still occurs around the time of clinical diagnosis of Type 1diabetes, even though the disease course has presumably been in progressfor several years. However, despite continued administration ofabatacept over 24 months, the fall in β-cell function in the abataceptgroup parallels that in the placebo group on the basis of themixed-model results that included the time interval from 6 to 24 months.This subsequent reduction in β-cell function causes us to speculate thatcontinuing T-cell activation subsides as the clinical course of thedisease progresses. Nevertheless, the difference from the placebo groupis maintained during drug administration. Further observation willestablish whether the beneficial effect continues after cessation ofmonthly abatacept infusions. Follow up of these patient shows that thedrug beneficial effect lasts beyond the drug administration for at leastone year.

Abatacept was well tolerated, with no difference between the two groupsin adverse events. However, a potential limitation to clinicalapplicability is that live vaccines cannot be used within 3 months ofabatacept treatment. This factor might be important in view of the youngage of the target population. The main effect seems to occur early afterinitiation of treatment with subsequent resumption of the fall in β-cellfunction. This pattern is reminiscent of the effects of anti-CD3,anti-CD20, and a GAD-65 vaccine, all of which showed some efficacyfollowed later by a reduction in β-cell function parallel to that in thecontrol group. However this approach stands out as this has little or noappreciable side effects unlike the other interventions enlisted. Thisfinding is consistent with our notion that there is an early window ofopportunity after diagnosis in which T-cell activation is prominent. The59% higher mean AUC C-peptide with abatacept than with placebo at 24months in our study is similar to that seen with those otherinterventions, although direct comparison of studies is difficultbecause of differences in important baseline characteristics, includingage, disease duration at time of randomization, and baseline HbA1c.Moreover, our study differs from those studies in that abatacept wasadministered continuously throughout the study, whereas in the case ofanti-CD3, anti-CD20, and GAD-65 vaccine, administration of drug wascompleted within 2-4 weeks after randomization. Crucially, our study wasnot designed to establish whether a short treatment protocol would besufficient to maintain improved C-peptide secretion over 2 years orwhether a continuation of treatment is needed beyond 2 years. With allpatients having completed their course of abatacept, the ongoingfollow-up phase of the study will investigate whether the improvedC-peptide secretion is sustained after discontinuation of the drug andfor how long. Long-term follow-up of patients in one anti-CD3 trialshowed diminishing difference in C-peptide secretion between the treatedand the placebo group after 3 years. This is not the case for abataceptas the data one year off treatment shows that the beneficial effect ismaintained, the difference in C-peptide preservation between theabatacept treated and the placebo group has not diminished (theabatacept group has 62% more C-peptide than the placebo group at 3years).

In the abatacept group, mean HbA1c was lower than that in the placebogroup throughout the trial, although it was also lower at baseline. Themaintenance of HbA1c lower than 7% for 18 months in theabatacept-treated group is noteworthy because 96 (86%) studyparticipants were 18 years or younger. The clinical importance of HbA1cat this level has been well documented. (The Diabetes Control andComplications Trial Research Group. N Engl. J Med 1993; 329: 977-86.)Insulin use was similar in the two groups and thus did not contribute tothe difference in HbA1c. In our trial, abatacept-treated patients withrecent-onset Type 1 diabetes had more endogenous insulin production,measured by C-peptide, during the 2 years of study drug administration.The duration of these effects after discontinuation of abatacept isbeing tested in ongoing follow-up of these patients. Theone-year-off-therapy data shows that the beneficial effects of abataceptpersist at least for one year beyond drug administration, includingsignificantly better HbA1c at 3 years in the abatacept group. Thepatients are being followed further. Abatacept administered over 2 yearsshowed an excellent safety profile in patients with Type 1 diabetes. Itsmain effect seems to occur early after the initiation of treatment,however further studies are needed to test how far in the autoimmuneprocess this drug can be effective in slowing down the autoimmunity.These approaches might be more easily tested with a subcutaneous versionof abatacept.

Example 2—Preparation of Insulin B-Chain

Human insulin was made by standard solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS)procedure, described herein and in U.S. Pat. Pub. 2006/0183670, hereinincorporated by reference. The assembly strategy used in the proteinsynthesis was ABI (Applied Biosystem Inc.)-Fmoc/Thr. The Fmoc groupprotects the α-amino group of the amino acid. The peptide was assembledfrom the C-terminal towards the N-terminal with the α-carboxyl group ofthe starting amino acid attached to a solid support (resin). The resinused for assembly was polystyrene bead, an insoluble support with sizeof 400-1000 micron in diameter swelled after washing with NMP(N-methylpyrrolidone). The resin was preloaded with the first amino acid(Thr) from the C-terminal.

The two steps were chain assembly and purification under sterileconditions.

The first step in chain assembly is deprotection, or removal of theprotecting group The Fmoc protecting group is removed by 22% piperidine.Conductimetric feedback of carbamate salt formed via removal of Fmocgroup with piperidine/NMP showed the coupling efficacy. Afterdeprotection, the next amino acid is activated and coupled to thedeprotected amino end of the growing peptide and forms the peptide bond.Activation of the incoming amino acid carboxyl group was achieved byHBTU/HOBt. Between couplings, the column was washed with methanol andNMP (N-methylpyrrolidone), which swells the resin and washes outresidues.

The cycle was repeated until a peptide of desired length was achieved. Awash step was performed with DCM (dichloromethane), which removes NMPfrom the resin, followed by thorough washing with highly volatilemethanol, an easily removable solvent which evaporates and dries.

Cleavage from the resin and removal of side-chain protecting groups. Acleavage mixture was prepared (0.75 g crystalline phenol+0.25 gethanedithiol+0.5 ml thioanisol+0.5 ml deionized H₂O+10 mltrifluoroacetic acid). The dried peptide-resin was incubated in coolflask in ice bath (10 ml mixture/100-150 mg peptide-resin) for 1.5 h.Then the peptide was isolated from the reaction mixture by glass funnelfiltration under high vacuum. The peptide was precipitated with coldmethyl t-butyl ether (MTBE) and vacuum dried.

The purification step under sterile conditions was performed withreverse phase HPLC. Buffer A=0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and bufferB=70% acetonitrile, 30% H₂O, 0.09% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). By usinga C18 column, the elution of the sample was based upon hydrophobicity(hydrophilic sample elutes earlier). The peak detection was performed byabsorbance measurement of peptide bond at 214 nm and identified by massspectrometry. The desired fraction was pooled in sterile vials andlyophilized with sample taken for AAA (amino acid analysis) analyticalrpHPLC and Mass Spectrometry.

The results of quality control tests on the B-chain produced provide aclear solution with a pH of 3.5 to 4.5 and a protein concentration of3.5-4.5 mg/ml (3.82 mg/ml) measured using Bio-Rad Assay Bio-RadLaboratories. The immunoreactivity/potency of human insulin RIA was10-30 uU/mg protein/ml (80.2 uU/ml) using Diagnostic SystemLaboratorieskit. Purity was measured using HPLC to provide an area p %of at least 95% (>99%) corresponding to <500 ppm (<20 ppm). The identityof the B-chain was verified using mass spectrometry to provide a mass of3400-3450 Da (single major peak 3428.7 Da). The amino acid sequenceanalyzer provided 30 amino acid of human B-chain insulin sequence.Pyrogens were measured via the standard USP method and meet requirementsfor absence of absence of pyrogens. Sterility for the absence ofpyrogens was also measured and the peptide was found to be sterile.

The insulin B-chain can be treated to increase its solubility, e.g., tocounter the effect of its hydrophobicity. This can be done byacidification and/or by using 4M urea buffer and/or by reducing cysteinewith DTT to avoid dimerization.

Example 3—Administration of Insulin B-Chain

The diabetes prone BBDP/WOR rats (the only other animal model of Type 1diabetes apart from the NOD mice) received the IBC (insulin B-chain inIFA) vaccine at a diabetes and insulitis free period of their life andneither the low dose nor the high dose precipitated early insulitis ordiabetes.

Serum samples from the BBDP/WOR rats (6 rats/groups) were analyzed forinsulin antibodies. There was a significant difference between thevehicle control vs. 100 μg insulin B-chain/rat and 500 μg insulinB-chain/rat doses (23.6 μU/ml+3.9SE vs. 37.9 μU/ml+4.5SE and 44.5μU/ml+3.3SE; significance p=0.03 and p=0.002 respectively; nosignificant difference between low and high dose groups in insulinantibody titers). The IBC vaccine was prepared fresh before injectingthe animals. The preparations were sampled on Day 1 and Day 14.

The insulin B-chain was also analyzed for pyrogens as per the standardUSP method and been reported as meeting the requirements for absence ofpyrogenes.

IFA approved for human use has been used, thus these interventionstrategies can be directly applied in human diabetes. The IFA is safeand effective in humans. IFA is currently used in HIV and othervaccination trials (peptide-based melanoma vaccine at Univ. Virginia)approved by FDA. Potential local side effects are similar to anycommonly used adjuvant vaccinations (alum is currently used in humanvaccines) and can include induration, moderate pain and low-grade fever.The injections can be given in small volume (1 ml) in deep intramuscularspace, thus minimizing the local side effects.

The composition contains two components: an adjuvant, and insulinB-chain and was prepared under conditions suitable for humanadministration. The first component is insulin B-chain, prepared andsolubilized as described in Example 2.

The second component is an IFA, e.g., Montanide ISA51 (Seppic Inc.France; Drug Master-file No: 10870DMF) or an equivalent composition.This IFA has been used in our animal studies and showed no systemic orsignificant local side effect. The injections were prepared fresh,immediately before administration, as an emulsion, in a lamina-flowprotected hood, under sterile conditions by using high pressure sterilesyringes with an 18 gauge spatial connector. 2 mg of insulin B-chain(0.5 ml) was mixed with Montanide ISA51 (0.5 ml). An equivalentcomposition can be used. The emulsion is a 50/50 (weight by weight)emulsion. The emulsion was given intramuscularly to an adult humansubject in a 1 ml volume in the thigh.

A comprehensive toxicology/safety study on the vaccine described hereinwas performed. Intramuscular injection of the insulin B-chain/IFAvaccine on each of days 1, 7 and 14 to male BBDP/WOR and Sprague-Dawleyrats at dose levels of 100 and 500 μg/rat, followed by a 14 dayobservation period had no toxicologically significant effects onclinical observation, body weights, food consumption, clinical pathology(hematology, coagulation, and clinical chemistry) and organ weights.Macroscopic (all animals) and microscopic (BBDP/WOR rats in low dose,high dose and vehicle control groups) evaluation showed injection sitechanges, including granulomatous inflammation attributable to thevehicle article.

Example 4—Combination Pre-Clinical Study

The CTLA4-Ig with human insulin B-chain vaccine combination therapy infully diabetic NOD mice was not seen to reverse the diabetes in theseanimals. Thus, the combination therapy did not cure the already diabeticNOD mice. Since it has previously been observed that only massive immunesuppression like antiCD3 cure a population of the NOD from diabetes—,such a result is not surprising. However the survival was better in thecombination therapy starting with abatacept followed by B-chain vaccine,than in either abatacept or B-chain vaccine alone, thus providing aclinically useful effect. The diabetes in NOD is florid autoimmuneprocess compared to diabetes in human. Abatacept alone given to NOD miceshortly before their onset of diabetes (>10 weeks of age; Lenschow etal.) did not alter the course of the disease in these animals, howeverabatacept alone was hugely effective in human even after the clinicalonset of their diabetes. Thus abatacept did not cure NOD diabetes inthis study has low relevance to a finding that the combination asdescribed herein can be hugely effective in human disease even in anadvanced stage i.e. post clinical onset. Thus treatment effect isexpected before, at or after clinical diagnosis in humans (longersurvival in NOD means that their self insulin production lasted longer)both in the human prevention and intervention settings. (See ClinImmunol. 2012 March; 142(3):402-3).

Example 5—Human Trial

Human insulin B-chain in IFA (Montanide ICA 51) was given to newlydiagnosed patients with Type 1 diabetes in a phase 1 safety clinicaltrial. In a placebo controlled double blind trial subjects received 2 mghuman insulin B-chain in IFA or vehicle in IFA as a single i.m.injection within 3 months of diagnosis. The patients were followed for 2years. The vaccination showed excellent safety profile. The vaccineinduced a highly desirable immune effect, generated insulin B-chainspecific regulatory T cells. Antigen specific regulatory T cells areconsidered the “holy grail” to control and suppress autoimmunity.Further details of this study are found in Orban et al., J. Autoimmune2010 June; 34(4): 408-15, herein incorporated by reference.

The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes onlyand are not to be construed as limiting the subject matter described inany way.

While the applicant's teachings are described in conjunction withvarious embodiments, it is not intended that the applicant's teachingsbe limited to such embodiments. On the contrary, the applicant'steachings encompass various alternatives, modifications, andequivalents, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art.

1.-19. (canceled)
 20. A method of treating diabetes mellitus in asubject comprising administering preproinsulin to the subject.
 21. Themethod of claim 20, further comprising administering a T-cell antagonistto the subject.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the T-cellantagonist comprises a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4(CTLA4) fusion protein.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the CTLA4fusion protein is abatacept.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein thepreproinsulin and CTLA4 fusion protein are administered in the samecomposition.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein the preproinsulin andCTLA4 fusion protein are administered in separate compositions.
 26. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the preproinsulin and CTLA4 fusion proteinare administered simultaneously.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein thepreproinsulin and CTLA4 fusion protein are administered sequentially.28. The method of claim 25, wherein the CTLA4 fusion protein isadministered intravenously or subcutaneously.
 29. The method of claim28, wherein the preproinsulin is administered intramuscularly.
 30. Themethod of claim 29, comprising administering from about 250 mg to about2,000 mg of the CTLA4 fusion protein.
 31. The method of claim 30,comprising administering from about 0.5 to about 10 mg of thepreproinsulin.
 32. The method of claim 20, wherein the preproinsulin isadministered in an oil based carrier.
 33. The method of claim 32,wherein the oil based carrier is a water-in-oil emulsion.
 34. The methodof claim 33, wherein the water-in-oil emulsions comprises from 30-70%oil by weight.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the oil based carriercomprises mannide oleate.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein thepreproinsulin and carrier are present in a composition in about a 50/50w/w ratio.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the oil based carriercomprises IFA or Mantanide ISA.
 38. The method of claim 31, wherein thepreproinsulin is administered in a water-in-oil emulsion comprisingmannide oleate.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the preproinsulinand emulsion are present in a composition in about a 50/50 w/w ratio.